Utafiti huu unaendeleza mbinu ya carrier- and trap-resolved photo-Hall (CTRPH) ili kubainisha electronic trap states katika semiconductors ambazo hunasa electrons au holes na hivyo kuathiri electrical transport na recombination, bila kuunda p-n junction au Schottky junction ya ziada. Matokeo msingi ya mbinu ni kwamba uhusiano kati ya photo-Hall conductivity na electrical conductivity unaopimwa wakati light intensity inabadilishwa unaweza kuelezewa kwa simple hyperbola equation chini ya single dominant trap model. Kutoka kwenye position, slope na geometry ya hyperbola, trap density, trap energy level na electron-hole mobility ratio zinaweza kutolewa.
Katika p-type silicon-on-insulator (p-SOI) sample, hyperbola curve fitting ilitoa trap density ya NT = 1,54 × 1014 cm−3 na trap energy relative to conduction-band edge ya ETC = 0,45 eV. Independent temperature analyses kwa sample hiyo hiyo zilitoa takriban 1,66 × 1014 cm−3 na 0,43 eV. Katika n-type silicon, NT = 2,5 × 1012 cm−3 ilibainishwa; katika FAPbI3 perovskite film, NT = 3,7 × 1012 cm−3 ilipimwa na trap energy ikakadiriwa kuwa katika range ya ETC ≈ 0,3–0,7 eV.
Sifa muhimu ya CTRPH ni kwamba haibaini traps pekee; kutoka kwenye same photo-Hall dataset inaweza pia kutoa electron na hole densities, mobilities, recombination lifetimes, diffusion coefficients, diffusion lengths na quasi-Fermi levels kama functions za light intensity. Watafiti wanaeleza kwamba kwa kila light-intensity setting hadi carrier parameters 17 zinaweza kupatikana, pamoja na trap parameters nne zinazohusiana na dominant trap state.
Kwa mtazamo wa Uturuki, mbinu hii inatoa measurement approach yenye nguvu inayoweza kutumika katika research laboratories kwa semiconductor-material research, photovoltaic materials, perovskites, sensor materials na advanced electronic-material characterization. Hata hivyo, study haionyeshi industrial success ya moja kwa moja katika production line au commercial semiconductor device. Application ni laboratory-scale characterization method inayohitaji variable temperature, controlled light intensity, Hall geometry, magnetic field na sensitive electrical-measurement infrastructure.
Electronic trap ni nini na kwa nini ni muhimu?
Katika study, electronic traps zinachukuliwa kama states zinazotokana na defects au impurities ndani ya semiconductor ambazo zinaweza kunasa free charge carriers na baadaye kuziachilia. Kulingana na source, point defects, dislocations, grain boundaries, stacking faults, surface states na interface states ni miongoni mwa possible sources za traps.
Traps hizi zinaweza kubadilisha free-carrier density na recombination processes, kupunguza conductivity, kufupisha carrier lifetime na katika baadhi ya systems kuhusishwa na hysteresis, noise, leakage current au unwanted power loss. Kwa hiyo si idadi ya traps pekee iliyo muhimu, bali pia energy level zao na interaction yao na charge carriers katika semiconductor characterization.
Tatizo la existing trap-measurement methods ni lipi?
Watafiti wanaeleza kwamba deep-level transient spectroscopy (DLTS), drive-level capacitance profiling, space-charge-limited current, thermal admittance spectroscopy, transient photoluminescence, time-resolved microwave conductivity na different photo-Hall approaches zinaweza kutumika.
Mojawapo ya main limitations zinazolengwa na CTRPH ni kwamba baadhi ya traditional methods zinahitaji additional device structures kama p-n au Schottky junction kwa measurement. Kuunda interface kama hiyo kunaweza kubadilisha traps zinazotakiwa kuchunguzwa au kuongeza traps mpya. Proposed approach katika study huchunguza Hall-bar-shaped semiconductor film moja kwa moja chini ya optical, electrical, magnetic na temperature-controlled excitations.
Experimental setup inafanyaje kazi?
Figure 1A inaonyesha basic structure ya CTRPH experimental system. Sample inawekwa ndani ya cryostat ambayo temperature yake inaweza kudhibitiwa kati ya 20–340 K. Rotating parallel dipole line (PDL) magnets kwenye pande mbili za sample hutengeneza oscillating magnetic field perpendicular kwa sample yenye magnitude ya takriban ±0,5 T.
RGB laser au Super K supercontinuum white laser yenye monochromator hutumika kama light source. Light intensity inadhibitiwa kwa continuous neutral-density filter na OD4 filter katika takriban eight orders of magnitude. Beam hupanuliwa hadi diameter ya takriban 10 mm ili Hall sample iangazwe uniformly.
Electrical measurement system inajumuisha Keithley 2450 source-measure unit, Keithley 2182A nanovoltmeter na Keithley 6485 picoammeter. Custom PDL control box ina Raspberry Pi Compute Module 4, motor-control system, data-acquisition boards na high-input-impedance Hall switching matrix.
Ni quantities zipi zinazotumika katika photo-Hall measurement?
Katika experiment, electrical conductivity σ na Hall coefficient H hupimwa wakati light intensity inaongezwa hatua kwa hatua. Katika previous carrier-resolved photo-Hall approach, slope ya σ2H dhidi ya σ ilihusishwa na tofauti kati ya electron na hole mobilities.
Katika study hii, ili kuonyesha effect ya traps kwa uwazi zaidi, watafiti wanafafanua quantity mpya wanayoita “photo-Hall conductivity”:
\[ \sigma_{\mathrm{PH}}=\frac{\sigma^2H}{r\mu_0} \]
Hapa r ni Hall scattering factor na μ0 ni majority-carrier mobility. Katika analysis ya study, r inachukuliwa kuwa takriban 1.
Kwa nini trap filling inapinda graph?
Main physical message ya Figure 1B ni kwamba transport regimes mbili tofauti hujitokeza katika low na high light intensity. Katika p-type silicon, photo-generated minority-carrier electrons kwanza hujaza trap states katika low light intensity. Wakati huo conductivity huchangiwa hasa na free majority-carrier holes.
Light intensity inapoongezeka traps hujaa. Baada ya traps kufikia saturation, photo-generated electrons mpya hubaki free katika conduction band na kuanza kuchangia electrical transport. Hivyo slope ya σPH–σ curve hubadilika na characteristic bend hutokea.
Katika σ2H–σ plot ya p-SOI sample, asymptotic slopes katika low na high light-intensity regions zilibainishwa kuwa takriban +440 na −990 cm2/Vs. Source inachukulia values hizi kuwa compatible na majority-carrier hole mobility na electron-hole mobility difference katika p-type silicon.
Hyperbola relationship ni nini?
Kwa p-type semiconductor model yenye single dominant trap level, watafiti wanaonyesha kwamba relationship kati ya σPH na σ inaweza kupunguzwa katika rotated coordinate system kuwa simple hyperbola equation ifuatayo:
\[ \frac{{\sigma'_{\mathrm{PH}}}^{2}}{a^{2}} - \frac{{\sigma'}^{2}}{b^{2}} =1 \]
Hapa σ′ na σ′PH ni coordinates zilizohamishwa kwenda center ya hyperbola na kurotatiwa kwa angle ϕ. Rotation angle ya hyperbola inategemea carrier mobility ratio:
\[ \beta=\frac{\mu_N}{\mu_P} \]
Katika p-type material, μN ni electron mobility na μP ni hole mobility.
Physical information inatolewaje kutoka hyperbola geometry?
Katika model, horizontal vertex position ya hyperbola inahusiana hasa na trap density NT, huku vertical position au Δ separation kutoka center ikihusiana na trap energy level. Kwa higher trap density, photo-carriers zaidi zinahitajika kujaza traps kikamilifu na turning point ya hyperbola husogea kwenda higher conductivity.
Katika low temperature, ikiwa trap level ni sufficiently deep relative to kBT, trap density inaweza kukadiriwa kutoka difference kati ya hyperbola turning point σ1 na dark conductivity σ0:
\[ \widetilde{N}_T= \frac{\sigma_1-\sigma_0}{e\mu_0} \]
Physical interpretation ya relationship hii ni kwamba kufikia turning point, available traps kwa kiasi kikubwa zimejazwa na photo-generated minority carriers.
Trap energy level inabainishwaje?
Study inatumia approaches mbili. Katika ya kwanza, Δ separation katika hyperbola geometry na other fit parameters hutumika. Katika p-SOI sample, Δ = 0,462 S/m ilipimwa na ETC = 0,46 eV ikapatikana. Value hii iko karibu na result ya 0,45 eV kutoka direct hyperbola curve fitting.
Katika method ya pili, temperature inabadilishwa. Arrhenius analysis inafanywa kwa kutumia temperature dependence ya slope S0 katika dark point:
\[ \ln \left[ \frac{1-S_0} {(\beta+S_0-1)(1+\beta)T^{1.5}} \right] = c_0-\frac{E_{TC}}{k_BT} \]
Katika Figure 2, measurements za p-SOI sample zilifanywa katika 260–340 K na ETC = 0,43 eV ikahesabiwa kutoka linear slope katika region ya 300–340 K.
Ni results zipi zilipatikana katika p-type SOI silicon?
p-type SOI layer iliyotumika katika first experiment ilikuwa na thickness ya 5,0 μm. Figure 1 measurement ilifanywa katika 300 K, wavelength 615 nm na maximum light intensity ya 157 mW/cm2.
Hyperbola curve fitting ilitoa parameters hizi:
- β = 3,26
- NT = 1,54 × 1014 cm−3
- ETC = 0,45 eV
Katika variable-temperature measurement ya 260–340 K, laser 550 nm na maximum intensity ya 165 mW/cm2 zilitumika. Kutoka low-temperature hyperbola vertices NT = 1,66 × 1014 cm−3 ilipatikana, na kutoka high-temperature Arrhenius analysis ETC = 0,43 eV ilipatikana.
Watafiti wanaeleza kwamba low temperature hutoa sharper hyperbola vertex kwa trap density, huku high temperature ikitoa stronger change katika S0 slope kwa determining trap energy level.
Je, method inafanya kazi katika n-type silicon?
Study pia ilitumia CTRPH approach kwa n-type silicon. Kutoka slope ya high-light regime, β = 3,24 na minority-carrier hole mobility ya μP = 526 cm2/Vs zilipatikana.
Trap density iliyohesabiwa kutoka turning point:
NT = 2,5 × 1012 cm−3
ilitolewa. Kwa sababu turning region ya curve ilikuwa pana zaidi, energy separation Δ haikuweza kubainishwa kwa usahihi; kwa hiyo upper bound ya ETV < 0,55 eV pekee iliripotiwa.
Ni material gani ilitumika katika perovskite?
CTRPH pia ilitumika kwa formamidinium-rich FAPbI3 perovskite thin film. Film iliandaliwa kwa MACl additive na kutengenezwa kuwa six-terminal Hall-bar sample yenye thickness ya takriban 700 nm, yaani 0,7 μm.
Sample ilichunguzwa chini ya 615 nm light na maximum light intensity ya 16 mW/cm2. Figure 3 inaonyesha kwamba material hii ni p-type na ina different transport regime ambapo hole mobility ni kubwa kuliko electron mobility.
Trap density katika FAPbI3 perovskite ni kiasi gani?
Kutumia turning point ya hyperbola-like curve katika Figure 3A kulitoa:
NT = 3,7 × 1012 cm−3
. Kulingana na study, value hii iko kwa kiasi kikubwa chini ya limit ya takriban NT,min ≈ 1015 cm−3 iliyoripotiwa kwa baadhi ya junction-capacitance-based trap-extraction methods kwa thickness ya 0,7 μm.
Kwa sababu perovskite hyperbola ilikuwa smooth sana, Δ separation haikuweza kubainishwa kwa precision ya kutosha. Watafiti wanakadiria trap energy kama range ya ETC ≈ 0,3–0,7 eV badala ya single exact value.
Verianla Live: Main trap parameters zilizotolewa kwa CTRPH
Values zifuatazo si “performance score” za magnitude moja. NT inaonyesha volumetric density ya electronic traps, huku energy column ikionyesha trap-energy parameter relative to relevant band edge iliyotumika katika study. Kwa p-SOI, main 300 K hyperbola curve fit imetumika katika table na independent temperature analysis imeonyeshwa tofauti katika note column.
| Sample | Trap density NT (cm−3) | Trap energy | Extraction / interpretation |
|---|---|---|---|
| p-type SOI silicon | 1,54 × 1014 | ETC = 0,45 eV | 300 K hyperbola curve fit; independent temperature analysis ilitoa NT = 1,66 × 1014 cm−3 na ETC = 0,43 eV |
| n-type silicon | 2,5 × 1012 | ETV < 0,55 eV | Kwa sababu curve ilikuwa pana, energy upper bound pekee ilitolewa. |
| FAPbI3 perovskite | 3,7 × 1012 | ETC ≈ 0,3–0,7 eV | Kwa sababu hyperbola ilikuwa smooth, energy ilikadiriwa kama range. |
Verianla Live: Visualization inaundwa tu kutokana na values katika visible source table hii. Table inahifadhiwa kama scientific source-of-truth. Trap densities hazipaswi kutafsiriwa kama direct “quality ranking” ya materials na measurement conditions tofauti.
Ni nini kingine kilichopimwa kuhusu carrier transport katika perovskite?
Figure 3B–E inaonyesha carrier densities, mobilities, recombination lifetimes na diffusion lengths kulingana na absorbed photon density.
Study inaripoti takriban values zifuatazo kwa perovskite film katika maximum light intensity sawa na takriban 0,16 sun:
- mobility μ ≈ 40 cm2/Vs,
- recombination lifetime τ ≈ 100 ns,
- diffusion length LD ≈ 3 μm
. Hizi ni carrier parameters zilizotolewa kwa specific FAPbI3 Hall-bar sample na measurement conditions za study.
CTRPH inaweza kutoa parameters ngapi?
Traps zinapoongezwa kwenye model, watafiti wanaweza kusolve tofauti electron density katika traps nT, free-electron photocarrier density Δn na hole photocarrier density Δp.
Kutoka kwenye hizi, electron na hole mobilities, recombination lifetimes, electron/hole/ambipolar diffusion coefficients na diffusion lengths, quasi-Fermi levels, quasi-Fermi level splitting na ideality factor huhesabiwa. Source inaeleza hii kama hadi 17 × N carrier parameters kwa N different light intensities. Zaidi ya hapo, trap parameters nne — density, energy level na electron/hole recombination capture cross-sections — zinaweza kutolewa.
Main message ya Figure 1 ni ipi?
Figure 1 ina sehemu nne. Panel A inaonyesha experimental setup; Panel B two transport regimes ambapo traps hujaa katika low light na kufikia saturation katika high light; Panel C hyperbola iliyofitishwa kwenye experimental data na effect ya NT na ETC kwenye curve geometry; Panel D inaonyesha four basic CTRPH curve shapes zinazotarajiwa kwa p-type/n-type na different electron-hole mobility ratios.
Kwa hiyo scientific message ya figure si kwamba “curve ni hyperbola” pekee. Hyperbola turning point inaunganishwa na trap filling, asymptotic slopes na carrier mobility ratio, na temperature-dependent curve shape na trap energy.
Main message ya Figure 2 ni ipi?
Figure 2 inaonyesha kwamba temperature ina complementary role katika kutenganisha trap density na trap energy. Hyperbola inakuwa sharper kuelekea 260 K, hivyo determining turning point na NT huwa rahisi; katika 300–340 K region, change ya initial slope na temperature hutoa sensitivity ya kutosha kwa Arrhenius analysis.
Main message ya Figure 3 ni ipi?
Figure 3 inaonyesha kwamba CTRPH haifungwi tu na material inayojulikana kama silicon na inaweza pia kutumika katika FAPbI3 perovskite yenye different carrier-mobility regime. Panel A ina trap-filling-related bend, Panel B free na trapped carrier densities, na Panels C–E light-intensity-dependent mobility, lifetime na diffusion length.
Assumption muhimu zaidi ya model ni ipi?
Theoretical model ya CTRPH katika study hii inadhania single dominant trap yenye narrow energy level. Watafiti wanaeleza wazi kwamba real materials zinaweza kuwa na multiple trap levels, distributed traps, tail states, Urbach tail na different carrier mobility distributions.
Katika complex systems kama hizi, σPH–σ curve si lazima iwe mathematically exact hyperbola, lakini similar two-regime behavior ya trap filling na trap saturation inaweza kubaki. Detailed analysis ya multi-level trap systems haijakamilishwa katika study hii na imeachwa kama mada ya future research.
Matokeo yanayoungwa mkono na study
- Katika CTRPH measurements, trap filling ilitengeneza characteristic bend katika σPH–σ relationship.
- Chini ya single dominant trap model, relationship hii iliweza kuelezewa kwa hyperbola equation.
- Kwa p-SOI, multiple independent extraction approaches zilitoa NT na ETC values zilizo karibu.
- Method ilitumika katika p-type na n-type silicon.
- Method katika FAPbI3 perovskite thin film ilitoa trap density ya 3,7 × 1012 cm−3.
- Photo-Hall data iliweza kusolve si trap parameters pekee, bali pia many light-intensity-dependent charge-carrier parameters.
Matokeo ambayo study haiungi mkono au haijatest bado
- Haijathibitishwa kwamba CTRPH itafanya kazi kwa same simple hyperbola equation katika all semiconductor materials na all multi-trap distributions.
- Single dominant trap model haionyeshi kwamba inawakilisha kikamilifu distributed au closely spaced multiple trap levels.
- Carrier parameters zilizopimwa katika FAPbI3 Hall-bar sample si direct power-conversion efficiency ya complete solar cell.
- Low NT values peke yake si guarantee ya long-term stability au commercial success ya device.
- Study haionyeshi kwamba CTRPH system imevalidated economically au operationally katika mass-production semiconductor lines.
Mbinu na Matokeo ya Utafiti
Technical parameters za CTRPH experimental system
| Item | Value / method iliyoripotiwa katika study |
|---|---|
| Temperature-control range | 20–340 K |
| Magnetic field | B = ±0,5 T |
| Magnetic system | Rotating NdFeB parallel dipole line (PDL) magnets |
| Light sources | RGB laser na Super K supercontinuum laser yenye monochromator |
| Light-intensity control | CNDF + OD4; takriban eight orders of magnitude |
| Beam coverage diameter | Takriban 10 mm |
| Source/measurement device | Keithley 2450 |
| Voltage measurement | Keithley 2182A nanovoltmeter |
| Photodetector current | Keithley 6485 picoammeter |
| Control computer | Raspberry Pi Compute Module 4 + Windows/MATLAB client |
p-SOI Hall sample
| Parameter | Value |
|---|---|
| Silicon layer thickness | 5,0 μm |
| Geometry | Six-terminal Hall bar |
| Electrode | 200 nm Au |
| Figure 1 measurement temperature | 300 K |
| Figure 1 laser wavelength | 615 nm |
| Figure 1 maximum light intensity | 157 mW/cm2 |
| Temperature series | 260–340 K |
| Temperature-series laser | 550 nm; maximum 165 mW/cm2 |
Comparison ya independent trap extractions kwa p-SOI
| Method | NT | ETC |
|---|---|---|
| 300 K hyperbola curve fit | 1,54 × 1014 cm−3 | 0,45 eV |
| Δ katika hyperbola geometry | — | 0,46 eV |
| Low-temperature vertex position + temperature analysis | 1,66 × 1014 cm−3 | 0,43 eV |
Different methods kutoa results zilizo karibu imetafsiriwa katika study kama mojawapo ya main experimental controls zinazounga mkono internal consistency ya CTRPH model.
n-type silicon results
| Parameter | Result |
|---|---|
| β | 3,24 |
| Minority-hole mobility μP | 526 cm2/Vs |
| Trap density NT | 2,5 × 1012 cm−3 |
| Trap-energy upper bound | ETV < 0,55 eV |
Maandalizi ya FAPbI3 perovskite sample
FAPbI3 black powder iliandaliwa kwa kuyeyusha PbI2 na FAI katika 1:1 molar ratio ndani ya 2-methoxyethanol. Solution ilipitishwa kwenye 0,45 μm PVDF filter, ikachakatwa kwa 120°C kwa saa moja, na resulting powder ikakaushwa katika 60°C kwa saa 24.
Katika perovskite precursor solution, 1550 mg FAPbI3 na 61 mg MACl ziliyeyushwa katika 1 ml DMF/DMSO (4:1). Kutoka solution iliyopitishwa kwenye 0,2 μm filter, 70 μl iliwekwa kwenye 2,5 × 2,5 cm glass substrate kwa spin-coating katika 8000 rpm kwa sekunde 50.
Katika second ya 10 ya coating, 1 ml diethyl ether ilidondoshwa; film ilianneal kwanza katika 150°C kwa dakika 15, kisha 100°C kwa dakika 30. Final film ilikuwa na thickness ya takriban 700 nm.
Perovskite CTRPH results
| Parameter | Result iliyoripotiwa katika study |
|---|---|
| Film | FAPbI3 + MACl |
| Thickness | 0,7 μm |
| Laser | 615 nm |
| Maximum light intensity | 16 mW/cm2 |
| Trap density | 3,7 × 1012 cm−3 |
| Trap energy | ETC ≈ 0,3–0,7 eV |
| Mobility, near maximum light | ≈ 40 cm2/Vs |
| Recombination lifetime | ≈ 100 ns |
| Diffusion length | ≈ 3 μm |
Main technical limitations za study
Model inadhania single dominant trap yenye narrow energy level. Multiple traps, energy distributions, band-tail states na mobility distributions zinaweza kutengeneza curves ngumu zaidi katika real materials. Watafiti wanatarajia kwamba hyperbola-like two-regime behavior inaweza kuendelea chini ya conditions hizi, lakini detailed multi-level trap solution haijakamilishwa experimentally katika study hii.
Trap-energy extraction pia ni sensitive kwa shape ya curve. Katika sharp hyperbola ya p-SOI, energy level inaweza kubainishwa vizuri kwa routes tofauti; katika n-type silicon na hasa perovskite, smoother bend ilipunguza precision ya energy level. Kwa hiyo range ya 0,3–0,7 eV ilitolewa badala ya single exact ETC value katika perovskite.
Main text pia inaelekeza kwenye Supplementary Text, Figures S1–S9 na Tables S1–S5 kwa many detailed analyses. Kwa kuwa uploaded main file haina supplementary pages hizi, Verianla explanation imetegemea results zilizoripotiwa moja kwa moja katika main article.
Dokezo la Chanzo na Mbinu
Jina kamili la kazi asilia: Electronic trap detection with carrier-resolved photo-Hall effect
Waandishi: Oki Gunawan; Chaeyoun Kim; Bonfilio Nainggolan; Minyeul Lee; Jonghwa Shin; Dong Suk Kim; Yimhyun Jo; Minjin Kim; Julie Euvrard; Douglas Bishop; Frank Libsch; Teodor Todorov; Yunna Kim; Byungha Shin.
Mpangilio wa waandishi: Umetolewa kwenye source kwa mpangilio hapo juu.
Equal contribution: Oki Gunawan na Chaeyoun Kim wameonyeshwa kwenye source kwa equal-contribution mark.
Corresponding authors: Oki Gunawan — ogunawa@us.ibm.com; Byungha Shin — byungha@kaist.ac.kr.
Institutions: IBM T. J. Watson Research Center, Yorktown Heights, USA; Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, South Korea; Department of Physics, Arizona State University, Tempe, USA; Ulsan Advanced Energy Technology R&D Center, Korea Institute of Energy Research, Ulsan, South Korea; Graduate School of Carbon Neutrality, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology, Ulsan, South Korea; Department of Physics and Centre for Processable Electronics, Imperial College London, United Kingdom.
Aina ya source: Peer-reviewed original research article — Research Article.
Field: Applied Sciences and Engineering.
Journal: Science Advances.
Publisher: American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS).
Volume / issue / article number: 12(1), eadz0460.
ISSN: 2375-2548.
Official publication link:Science Advances article page
Submission date: 15 Mei 2025.
Acceptance date: 25 Novemba 2025.
Publication date: 1 Januari 2026.
Peer-review status: Research Article iliyochapishwa katika Science Advances ni category ya scientific publication inayopitia peer review.
License: Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0).
Funding: Study ilifadhiliwa na National Research Foundation of Korea kupitia Korean government MSIT kwa grants RS-2023-00208832 na RS-2022-NR068162; BK21FOUR R&E Initiative for K-Materials Global Innovation program; na kwa Julie Euvrard, Royal Society Research Grants 2023 Round 2 — RG/R2/232246 support. Oki Gunawan pia alitaja IBM Exploratory Science Research program katika acknowledgments.
Author contributions: Conceptualization — Oki Gunawan na Byungha Shin; experimental setup development — Oki Gunawan na Chaeyoun Kim; measurements — Oki Gunawan na Chaeyoun Kim; sample fabrication — Jonghwa Shin, Minyeul Lee, Dong Suk Kim, Yimhyun Jo, Minjin Kim, Teodor Todorov na Chaeyoun Kim; theoretical model development na validation — Oki Gunawan, Bonfilio Nainggolan, Julie Euvrard na Chaeyoun Kim; data analysis na interpretation — Oki Gunawan, Chaeyoun Kim, Bonfilio Nainggolan, Byungha Shin, Julie Euvrard na Frank Libsch. Writing tasks pia zimeorodheshwa kwenye source kama multiple-author contributions.
Conflict of interest: PDL carrier-resolved photo-Hall system iliyotumika katika study ilitengenezwa IBM, na source inaorodhesha multiple US na international patents pamoja na 2025 patent application inayohusiana na Oki Gunawan/IBM. Other authors hawakuripoti other conflict of interest.
Data and materials availability: Authors wanaeleza kwamba data na code zinazohitajika kutathmini na kureproduce results zinapatikana katika article na/au Supplementary Materials.
Source-internal note: Solar-cell literature inayohusishwa na perovskite-material preparation inatajwa katika sections tofauti za text kwa power-conversion efficiencies za %25,4 na %25,7. Values hizi si direct measured device efficiency ya Hall-bar film iliyochunguzwa kwa CTRPH na hazijaunganishwa hapa kuwa single value. Copyright year inaonekana 2026 kwenye first page ya PDF na 2025 kwenye final bibliographic page; license information ni CC BY 4.0 katika sehemu zote mbili.
Scientific content ya makala hii ya Verianla inategemea tu published research ya Gunawan na colleagues. External sources zilitumika tu kwa bibliographic verification ya publication identity na peer-review status; hakuna new semiconductor performance result au trap measurement iliyoongezwa kutoka nje.
Main methodological boundary ya study ni kwamba detailed theoretical extraction inategemea single dominant trap with narrow energy level model. Materials zenye multiple au distributed trap levels zinatarajiwa kuwa na behavior ngumu zaidi. Pia, kwa kuwa uploaded main file haina Supplementary Text, S1–S9 figures na S1–S5 tables zinazorejelewa na study, explanation hii imewekewa mipaka na results zinazoonekana katika main article.
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