Maudhui halisi ya utafiti huu ni kumodeli mfumo wa pneumatic drive wa gari la majaribio la Pneumobile linalotumia gesi iliyoshinikizwa ndani ya mazingira ya parametriki ya simulation yanayotegemea MATLAB/Simulink. Model inawakilisha kwa pamoja mnyororo wa nishati wa pneumatic na mechanical unaoanzia kwenye main pressure tank na kuendelea kupitia pressure regulation, auxiliary reservoir, valves, connectors, hoses, double-acting pneumatic cylinders mbili, rack-and-pinion mechanism, chain transmission, freewheels, output torque, wheel traction na vehicle motion. Watafiti wanaeleza main purpose ya model kuwa kuwezesha pressure, flow rate, force, torque, rotational speed na gas consumption kuchunguzwa virtually kabla ya kubadilisha physical prototype.

Reference mechanism ina double-acting pneumatic cylinders mbili. Kila cylinder ina piston diameter ya 100 mm na stroke length ya 320 mm. Rack mechanism kwenye piston rods hubadilisha linear reciprocating motion kuwa continuous output rotation katika direction ileile kupitia gear na chain system. Wakati wa extension stroke, freewheel moja hupeleka torque huku nyingine ikizunguka bila mzigo; wakati wa retraction stroke, roles hubadilika. Hivyo, bidirectional linear piston motion hubadilishwa kuwa unidirectional rotary output.

Katika source, kwa kutumia maximum permitted pressure ya 1 MPa na piston diameter ya 100 mm, theoretical maximum force ya cylinder moja imehesabiwa kuwa karibu 7854 N. Kwa pitch radius ya 35 mm, theoretical torque katika rack-and-pinion group ni karibu 275 N·m, na wakati actuators mbili pamoja na transmission ratios zinazingatiwa, maximum theoretical torque kwenye output shaft imetolewa kuwa 84 N·m. Values hizi ni analytical design values; katika 60-second dynamic simulation, real-time force na torque curves zinazoonekana kwenye graphs hubadilika cyclically na kubaki chini ya theoretical maximum values hizi.

Pneumatic circuit imegawanywa katika main pressure tank na safety system, auxiliary air reservoir, na right-left actuator circuits. Relative flow sections zilihesabiwa kutoka nominal flow rates katika manufacturer catalogs; equivalent relative section ya 5,78 mm² iliripotiwa kwa main safety circuit, 10,56 mm² kwa auxiliary-reservoir circuit, 10,56 mm² kwa kila actuator branch, na 2,91 mm² kwa entire system including hoses. Baadaye, kwa kukubali kwamba compressible na choked flow haiwezi kuwakilishwa vya kutosha na classical Bernoulli approach, sonic conductance \(C\) na critical pressure ratio \(b\) values zilitolewa approximately ndani ya ISO 6358 framework.

Katika final 60-second simulation ya model, main-tank pressure hupungua kadiri gas inavyotumika, pressure baada ya regulator hujaribiwa kudumishwa karibu 0,6 MPa, na pneumatic cylinders mbili hufanya repeated extension-retraction motion kwa opposite phase. Forces hizi hubadilishwa kupitia mechanical transmission kuwa cyclic differential torque na wheel traction. Hata hivyo, study haitoi independent physical experimental validation; sehemu kubwa ya results ni simulation outputs zinazotegemea real component catalog parameters na previous Pneumobile designs.

Kwa mtazamo wa Uturuki: Study haijavalidated kwenye vehicle au industrial system iliyotengenezwa nchini Uturuki. Hata hivyo, kwa pneumatic automation, mechatronics, vocational higher schools na engineering laboratories, inaonyesha example ya kufundisha kwa kuunganisha real valve, cylinder, pipe na transmission parameters ndani ya Simulink model ileile. Ili itumike katika real pneumatic vehicle au industrial drive design nchini Uturuki, manufacturer-specific actual ISO 6358 parameters, leaks, temperature changes, friction, real valve dynamics, mechanical efficiencies na physical-prototype measurements zinahitaji calibration na validation za ziada.

Utafiti kwa kweli unachunguza nini?

Kinyume na original title, main subject ya research si inspection cell bali virtual model ya Pneumobile drive system inayotumia compressed gas. Kuanzia introduction hadi conclusion, main engineering problem ni kuunganisha pneumatic-circuit dynamics na mechanical power transmission ndani ya single parametric model.

Watafiti hasa wanalenga kuweza kutabiri variables zifuatazo kabla prototype haijatengenezwa:

• tank na line pressures,
• gas flow rate na consumption,
• pneumatic-cylinder forces,
• transmission torque,
• differential output torque,
• wheel tractive force,
• vehicle acceleration,
• rotational speed,
• total travel distance.

Innovation claim ya study ni kuwakilisha pneumatic circuit pamoja na mechanical transmission ndani ya fully parametric na reconfigurable MATLAB/Simulink architecture.

Reference Pneumobile mechanism inafanyaje kazi?

Study imetumia kama reference mechanism ya Air Force TUKE Pneumobile 2019 iliyotengenezwa awali katika Technical University of Košice. Figure 1 kwenye page 4 inaonyesha three-dimensional mechanical structure ambapo double-acting pneumatic cylinder imeunganishwa kwenye rack, gear, chain na shaft system. Figure 2 kwenye page hiyo hiyo inaelezea transmission arrangement ambapo freewheels mbili hubadilishana kupeleka torque katika forward na return strokes.

Cylinder inaposonga mbele, rack huzungusha gear. Motion huhamishwa kupitia chain kwenda first shaft. Freewheel moja huendesha output shaft katika positive direction huku freewheel nyingine ikizunguka freely katika opposite direction. Piston inaporudi, rotation direction ya intermediate shafts hubadilika, lakini second freewheel huingia na kuendesha output shaft tena katika positive direction ileile.

Kwa mechanical arrangement hii, reciprocating linear motion ya pneumatic cylinder hubadilishwa kuwa continuous unidirectional rotation kwenye output.

Theoretical piston force ilihesabiwaje?

Piston force ilihesabiwa kama product ya piston area na pressure:

\[ F= \pi \left( \frac{d_{piston}}{2} \right)^2 p_{max} \approx 7854\;N \]

Katika source:

• \(d_{piston}=100\;mm\)
• \(p_{max}=1\;MPa\)

zimetolewa.

Kwa pitch-circle radius ya 35 mm katika rack-and-pinion mechanism:

\[ M_k=F\,r\approx275\;N\cdot m \]

result hupatikana.

Wakati mechanical transmission ratios za actuators mbili zinazingatiwa, source inatoa kwa output shaft:

\[ M_{k,output}=84\;N\cdot m \]

kama maximum theoretical value.

Numbers hizi tatu si aina ileile ya result. 7854 N inawakilisha theoretical maximum linear force ya piston, 275 N·m theoretical torque kwenye single rack-and-pinion set, na 84 N·m theoretical output torque baada ya entire mechanical transmission.

Pneumatic system imegawanywa katika sehemu gani kuu?

Figure 5 kwenye page 7 inaonyesha entire pneumatic circuit katika single diagram. Circuit ina main groups tatu:

1. main pressure tank na safety/regulation system,
2. auxiliary pressure reservoir,
3. right na left double-acting actuator circuits.

Separation hii imehifadhiwa pia katika Simulink model. Hivyo pressure loss na flow restriction ya kila subsystem inaweza kuwakilishwa kwa separate parameters.

Main pressure tank imemodeliwaje?

Main tank ya physical circuit ina volume ya 10 L na awali ina nitrogen yenye pressure ya 20 MPa. Kulingana na source, nitrogen ilichaguliwa kama working gas kwa sababu inapatikana kwa urahisi na ina physical properties zinazofanana na air.

Hapa kuna important source-internal setting difference. Katika analytical circuit description, regulator imeelezwa kupunguza tank pressure:

20 MPa → 1 MPa

.

Kinyume chake, katika section 2.4.1 ya Simulink model regulator imemodeliwa kama:

20 MPa → karibu 0,6 MPa

na result graph katika Figure 16 pia inaonyesha karibu 0,6 MPa.

1 MPa pia imetumika kama maximum permitted pressure katika competition rules kwa theoretical-force calculation. Source haielezi wazi transition kati ya 1 MPa katika analytical circuit na 0,6 MPa katika simulation.

Role ya auxiliary reservoir ni nini?

Gas kutoka main regulator hupelekwa kwenye auxiliary reservoir ili kusawazisha instantaneous flow demands za actuators. Reservoir pia ni distribution node ya right na left pneumatic circuits.

Hata hivyo, kuna source-internal inconsistency pia katika reservoir volume:

• section 2.3.2: 25 L,
• section 2.4.2 Simulink model description: 24 L.

Katika Verianla text, numbers hizi mbili hazijaunganishwa kuwa single value.

Flow ya connection elements ilizingatiwaje?

Kila valve, fitting na hose huleta pressure loss katika pneumatic system. Watafiti walibadilisha nominal flow values \(Q_n\) katika manufacturer catalogs kuwa relative flow section kwa kutumia relation:

\[ S=Q_n\times0.018 \]

.

Combined equivalent section ya series-connected elements imehesabiwa katika source kwa:

\[ S_{eq}= \sqrt{ \frac{1}{ \frac{1}{S_1^2}+ \frac{1}{S_2^2}+ \frac{1}{S_3^2}+\cdots+ \frac{1}{S_n^2} } } \]

.

Kwa method hii, equivalent section ya main safety group ilipatikana kuwa 5,78 mm². Auxiliary reservoir na actuator branches mbili zina value ya 10,56 mm². Hose effects zikiongezwa kwenye entire circuit, total equivalent restriction hushuka hadi 2,91 mm².

Kwa nini hose length ni muhimu?

Study inatumia relative-section values kwa polyurethane hoses zenye 12 mm outer na 9 mm inner diameter katika lengths tofauti. Table 4 inatoa 51,00 mm² kwa 0,5 m length na 43,79 mm² kwa 1 m.

Kwa kuwa hakuna direct reference value kwa 1,5 m hose, watafiti walitengeneza approximate curve kutoka limited data points na kukadiria:

38,5 mm²

.

Waandishi wanaeleza wazi kama limitation kwamba estimate hii inategemea limited reference data na inaweza kusababisha small deviations katika distributed flow resistance.

Kwa nini Bernoulli calculation pekee haikutosha?

Bernoulli na continuity equations zilitumiwa kwa initial flow estimate; lakini kwa sababu compressibility, turbulence na choked flow zinaweza kutokea katika pneumatic valves na orifices, watafiti baadaye walihamia ISO 6358 approach.

ISO 6358 framework inatumia main parameters mbili:

• Sonic conductance \(C\): flow capacity katika choked-flow region,
• Critical pressure ratio \(b\): boundary kati ya critical na subcritical flow regimes.

Kwa kuwa manufacturers wengi hawatoi parameters hizi mbili directly kwa components, \(C\) ilitolewa approximately kutoka nominal flow:

\[ C\approx1.5\frac{Q_n}{P_1} \]

Reference upstream pressure ilitumiwa kama \(P_1=0,6\;MPa\).

Critical pressure ratio ilichukuliwa kuwa:

\[ b=0.3 \]

kwa all relevant elements.

Value hii si \(b\) iliyopimwa separately na manufacturer kwa kila component; ni model assumption ya study.

Simulink model ina sehemu gani?

Model imejengwa kwa MATLAB 23.2/Simulink, Simscape na Simscape Fluids katika four main functional groups:

1. main pressure tank na safety/regulation model,
2. auxiliary reservoir model,
3. pneumatic-actuator models mbili,
4. control logic inayotegemea valve na piston position.

Baada ya hizi, separate Simulink calculation blocks hubadilisha actuator forces kuwa mechanical torque, wheel tractive force, acceleration, rotational speed na distance.

Kwa nini actuators mbili zinaanza katika positions zinazopingana?

Actuator 1 imewekwa awali kwenye 0 mm, huku Actuator 2 ikiwa kwenye 320 mm. Hivyo mmoja akiongezeka mwingine anarudi, na mechanism inafanya kazi kwa opposite phase.

Figure 18 kwenye page 21 inaonyesha valve-control signals zikiswitch kwa opposite phase kati ya +1 na −1; Figure 19 inaonyesha corresponding opposite displacement cycles za pistons mbili.

Opposite-phase operation hii, ikijumuishwa na mechanical freewheel system, inalenga kutengeneza torque inayoendelea katika direction ileile kwenye output shaft.

Valve-control logic imejengwaje?

Directional-control valve katika simulation ina P, A, B na T ports. Control input:

• \(+1\): P–A na B–T,
• \(-1\): P–B na A–T

huactivate flow paths.

Actual piston position inalinganishwa na predefined stroke limits. End position ikifikiwa, valve direction hubadilishwa. S–R Flip-Flop huhifadhi control state katika memory, huku Unit Delay block ikitumika kuzuia algebraic loop katika feedback path.

Kwa nini kuna majina tofauti katika valve descriptions?

Valve configuration haijaelezwa kwa terminology ileile katika sections tofauti za source. Section 2.2 inasema kila actuator inafanya kazi kwa 5/2 directional-control valve. Section 2.3.3 inaeleza physical component kama 5/3 valve na kusema outputs mbili zimefungwa ili ifanye kazi kama 3/3. Katika Simulink actuator model, 4-Way 3-Position / 4/3 valve block imetumika.

Ingawa kubadilisha physical valve kuwa abstract Simscape model inawezekana technically, source haiunganisha descriptions hizi tofauti kwa explicit port-mapping table. Kwa hiyo, Verianla text imehifadhi expressions zote tatu kama source-internal modeling difference.

Tank pressure inabadilikaje katika 60-second simulation?

Katika Figure 15, main tank pressure ni karibu 20 MPa mwanzoni na hupungua continuously katika 60 seconds kadiri system inavyojaa na actuators zinavyotumia nitrogen. Mwisho wa graph pressure inakaribia karibu 12 MPa.

Value hii imesomwa approximately kutoka graph; source haitoi exact 60th-second value katika table form.

Nini kinatokea kwenye regulator outlet?

Katika Figure 16, pressure baada ya regulator baada ya initial transient hufika haraka karibu 0,6 MPa na kudumishwa karibu level hiyo kwa small periodic oscillations.

Graph hii inaonyesha directly kwamba actual regulator target iliyotumiwa katika simulation ni tofauti na 1 MPa statement katika analytical section.

Source-internal inconsistency katika flow-rate graph ni nini?

Text, wakati wa kuelezea Figure 17, inasema kuna sharp initial peak inayofikia karibu 100 L/min.

Hata hivyo, visible y-axis ya Figure 17 iko katika range ya 0–1600 L/min na initial transient response inaanza katika order ya karibu 1500 L/min kabla ya kushuka haraka. Level ya karibu 100 L/min inaonekana kuwa karibu zaidi na periodic operating region baada ya initial transient.

Kwa hiyo, statement “initial peak ≈100 L/min” si consistent na graph. Verianla haijabadilisha value hii na new exact number iliyosomwa kutoka graph.

Actuator force na differential torque zinatendaje?

Katika Figure 20, total actuator force inayotengenezwa na opposite pneumatic strokes mbili huongezeka na kupungua katika regular cycles. Force graph inabaki chini ya theoretical maximum ya 7854 N.

Katika Figure 21, cyclic structure ileile inaonekana katika differential torque. Torque hubadilika periodically katika band ya karibu 25–80 N·m huku analytical maximum output value ikiwa 84 N·m.

Result hii inaonyesha kwamba ingawa mechanism inadumisha positive output torque kwa opposite actuators mbili, torque si constant; inaoscillate kulingana na stroke cycle.

Kwa nini Figures 22–25 zinapaswa kusomwa kwa uangalifu?

Graphs nne za mwisho katika results section zina clear figure-caption mismatches ndani ya source.

• Figure 22 imeitwa “Wheel traction forces over time”; lakini visible y-axis ni “Vehicle acceleration [m/s²]”.
• Figure 23 imeitwa “Vehicle acceleration over time”; lakini visible y-axis ni “Tractive force on the driven wheel [N]”.
• Figure 24 ina title “Rotational speed of the drivetrain over time” lakini visible graph ina “Distance [m]” axis.
• Figure 25 ina title “Total distance traveled over time” lakini visible y-axis ni “Rotational speed [rev/s]”.

Ingawa graph axes zinatoa strong indication ya physical variable inayowakilishwa na results, figure numbers na captions zimechapishwa hivyo hivyo katika source. Kwa hiyo, Verianla haijazirenumber kimya kimya.

Je, model inapima energy efficiency kweli?

Model imeundwa kuchunguza relations kati ya gas consumption, flow restrictions, pressure losses na mechanical output; hivyo inatoa infrastructure inayoweza kutumika kwa energy management na efficiency optimization.

Hata hivyo, study hairipoti single experimental total energy-efficiency percentage iliyohesabiwa kutoka input energy na useful mechanical output energy kwa entire system. Expression “Energy-efficient” inaelezea optimization objective na design approach; si final efficiency result iliyothibitishwa na study kwa specific percentage.

Matokeo yanayoungwa mkono na utafiti

• Modular MATLAB/Simulink–Simscape Fluids model inayotegemea real Pneumobile component parameters imeundwa.
• Double-acting pneumatic cylinders mbili zenye 100 mm diameter na 320 mm stroke zimemodeliwa.
• Kwa theoretical maximum pressure ya 1 MPa, single-piston force imehesabiwa kuwa karibu 7854 N.
• Theoretical torque katika rack-and-pinion set imehesabiwa kuwa karibu 275 N·m.
• Theoretical maximum output torque baada ya transmission imetolewa kuwa 84 N·m.
• Equivalent flow restrictions zimehesabiwa kutoka nominal flow rates za pneumatic subsystems.
• Equivalent relative section ya entire circuit including hoses imehesabiwa kuwa 2,91 mm².
• Sonic conductance na critical pressure ratios zimeongezwa approximately kwenye model kulingana na ISO 6358 approach.
• Dynamic behavior ya tank pressure, regulator pressure, flow, piston position, force na torque imepatikana katika 60-second simulation.
• Opposite-phase operation ya actuators mbili imefanywa stably ndani ya model.

Matokeo ambayo utafiti hauungi mkono au haujatesti directly

• Study haitathmini experimentally performance ya universal inspection cells.
• Results za Simulink model iliyojengwa katika study hii hazijalinganishwa directly na new physical Pneumobile experiment.
• Continuous output torque ya 84 N·m iliyopimwa kwenye real vehicle haijaonyeshwa; 84 N·m ni theoretical design value.
• Haijathibitishwa kwamba model inawakilisha kikamilifu all real leaks, temperature changes na mechanical losses.
• Experimental total energy-efficiency percentage ya entire system haijatolewa.
• 1,5 m hose parameter si direct measurement bali approximation kutoka limited reference data.
• Actual ISO 6358 critical pressure ratio ya kila component haijapimwa kwa separate experiment; \(b=0,3\) imeassumiwa.
• Simulation result si validated field measurement ya real vehicle range.
• Variable road grade, real driving load na adaptive air management hazijatestwa katika basic validation ya current model.

Mbinu na Matokeo ya Utafiti

Main physical na simulation parameters

Analytical force na torque results

Flow elements katika main safety circuit

Baada ya main tank kuna components kama shut-off valve, fittings, regulation unit, cross connection, safety valve, pressure-gauge line, quick-exhaust valve na silencer. Manufacturer nominal flow rates zinabadilika approximately kutoka 131 L/min hadi 8443 L/min.

Equivalent relative section iliyohesabiwa kutoka elements katika series main flow path imetolewa kama:

\[ \sum S_1=5.78\;mm^2 \]

.

Auxiliary reservoir circuit

Katika inlet ya auxiliary reservoir kuna 3/2 shut-off valve na connection elements. Digital PE5 pressure sensor hufuatilia internal reservoir pressure.

Kwa section hii:

\[ \sum S_2=10.56\;mm^2 \]

imehesabiwa.

Actuator circuits

Pande zote mbili za kila pneumatic cylinder zinasupplyiwa kupitia separate valve paths. Physical CD12 component imeorodheshwa katika source table kama 5/3 valve na nominal flow yake imetolewa kuwa 3800 L/min.

Calculated equivalent values za left na right actuator supply branches ni:

\[ \sum S_3=10.56\;mm^2 \]

\[ \sum S_4=10.56\;mm^2 \]

.

Equivalent section ya entire circuit

Flow restrictions za 0,5 m, 1 m na 1,5 m hose pieces zikiongezwa pia:

\[ \sum S_{total}=2.91\;mm^2 \]

result hupatikana.

Result hii inaonyesha kwamba ingawa individual subcircuits zina higher flow capacity, series elements nyingi na hoses huongeza total restriction katika entire system.

ISO 6358 parameters

Baadhi ya selected sonic conductance values katika source ni:

All \(b\) values kuwa 0,3 haimaanishi kwamba value ileile ilipimwa experimentally kwenye all components; ni common model assumption ya study.

Main tank Simscape model

Katika Figure 7 kwenye page 14, main-tank model ina main blocks hizi:

• Gas Properties,
• Constant Volume Chamber,
• Perfect Insulator,
• Pressure Sensor,
• Orifice,
• Pressure Reducing Valve,
• Pipe,
• Solver Configuration,
• Scope na Display blocks.

Model hufuatilia kwa pamoja tank initial pressure ya 20 MPa na pressure difference baada ya regulator.

Auxiliary reservoir Simscape model

Figure 8 kwenye page 15 inaonyesha pipe, orifice, flow sensor, pressure sensor na constant-volume chamber blocks kutoka regulator outlet kwenda auxiliary tank. Katika model hii auxiliary tank imefafanuliwa kuwa 24 L; tofauti na 25 L katika analytical circuit description.

Actuator Simscape model

Katika Figure 9 kwenye page 16, double-acting pneumatic actuator, measurements za two chamber pressures, valve, atmospheric reservoir, translational friction, piston/rack mass na position output zimeunganishwa ndani ya physical model ileile.

Theoretical forces katika forward na return directions huhesabiwa kutoka instantaneous pressures za cylinder chambers mbili.

Control system

Figure 10 kwenye page 17 inaonyesha piston-position-based switching logic. Compare To Constant blocks hugundua end positions. S–R Flip-Flop huhifadhi current valve state. Unit Delay huzuia algebraic loop.

Source inachukulia kama moja ya advantages za model kwamba control hii huunda cycle yenyewe kupitia piston position bila kuhitaji complex external controller.

Conversion kutoka pneumatics kwenda vehicle motion

Figures 11–14 kwenye pages 18–19 zinaonyesha calculation chain step by step:

1. cylinder forward/return forces zinaunganishwa,
2. shaft torque huhesabiwa kupitia gear na chain ratios,
3. differential output hupatikana,
4. wheel tractive force huhesabiwa,
5. hubadilishwa kuwa vehicle acceleration,
6. shaft rotational speed hutolewa kutoka piston position,
7. total wheel rotation na displacement hupatikana kwa integration.

Main observations za 60-second simulation

Computational cost

Waandishi wanaeleza kwamba detailed physical structure ya model husababisha significant computational cost. Kusimulate several minutes za real system time kunaweza kuhitaji several hours za computation kulingana na solver settings na hardware.

Hii inaonyesha trade-off kati ya physical detail ya model na fast optimization.

Numerical-stability issues

Feedback na logical-switching blocks hasa zinaweza kuunda algebraic loops. Watafiti walipunguza problem hii kwa delay elements kama Unit Delay na suitable solver configuration.

Model accuracy pia inategemea directly manually entered data kama:

• hose sections,
• connection losses,
• valve characteristics,
• cylinder parameters,
• gear ratios

.

Future work

Watafiti wanapendekeza katika next stages adaptive au PID-based valve control, variable driving scenarios, grade conditions, advanced compressed-air management, detailed optimization kupitia MATLAB Workspace na mechanical-motion visualization kwa Simscape Multibody.

Maelezo ya Chanzo na Mbinu

Jina kamili asilia la utafiti: Design and Optimization of Universal Inspection Cells with Energy-Efficient Pneumatic Actuation

Title–content note: Original title iko katika source exactly kwa namna hii na haijabadilishwa. Hata hivyo, body ya scientific study si kuhusu “Universal Inspection Cells”, bali modeling na simulation ya Air Force TUKE Pneumobile pneumatic-vehicle drive system. Clear mismatch hii kati ya title subject na actual method na results za article ipo katika source study yenyewe.

Waandishi: Marek Sukop, Rudolf Jánoš, Jakub Brna, Jaroslav Melko.

Author order: Order iliyotolewa katika source imehifadhiwa exactly.

Co-first / equal contribution: Hakuna co-first au equal-contribution statement katika source.

Corresponding author: Rudolf Jánoš.

Taasisi: Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Department of Production Technology and Robotics, Technical University of Kosice, Košice, Slovakia.

Aina ya chanzo: Peer-reviewed research article; pneumatic drive, analytical parameter estimation na MATLAB/Simulink–Simscape Fluids-based engineering simulation.

Jarida: Actuators.

Mchapishaji: MDPI.

Bibliographic citation: Actuators 2026, 15(1), 36.

Article number: 36.

DOI: 10.3390/act15010036.

Official publication link:https://doi.org/10.3390/act15010036

Submission date: 24 November 2025.

Revision date: 18 December 2025.

Acceptance date: 26 December 2025.

Publication date: 6 January 2026.

Leseni: Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY).

Funding: Imeripotiwa kwamba work iliungwa mkono na Slovak Grant Agency VEGA 1/0294/24 project “Research and development of a multi-robotic system with distributed intelligence in the cloud” na 043TUKE-4/2024 project “Creating promising educational tools for the field of additive manufacturing with the implementation of progressive virtual reality elements”.

Data availability: Imeelezwa kwamba original contributions za study zinapatikana ndani ya article na additional questions zinaweza kuelekezwa kwa relevant authors.

Conflict of interest: Waandishi waliripoti kwamba hakuna conflict of interest.

Author contributions: Conceptualization M.S. na J.B.; methodology M.S. na R.J.; software M.S.; validation R.J.; data curation J.M.; review na editing J.B.; visualization J.B.; supervision M.S. zimeripotiwa.

Scientific-content boundary: Cylinder geometries, tank pressures, flow parameters, equations, Simulink blocks, force na torque calculations, 60-second simulation findings na limitations katika Verianla article hii zinategemea solely source study iliyochunguzwa. Hakuna new scientific result kutoka external sources iliyoongezwa isipokuwa bibliographic identity verification.

Important inconsistencies ndani ya source

• Title–content mismatch: Original title inazungumzia universal inspection cells, lakini entire study ni pneumatic-vehicle drive model.
• Regulator pressure: Analytical description inatumia reduction kutoka 20 MPa hadi 1 MPa, huku Simulink model na results zikitumia target ya karibu 0,6 MPa.
• Auxiliary reservoir volume: Analytical section inatoa 25 L, Simulink model 24 L.
• Valve definition: Different sections zinatumia 5/2, modified 5/3→3/3 na 4/3 valve descriptions; model mapping kati yao haijaelezwa wazi.
• Figure 17 flow: Description inasema initial peak ni karibu 100 L/min, huku visible graph ikionyesha much larger transient ya order ya karibu 1500 L/min mwanzoni.
• Figure 22: Caption inasema wheel tractive force, lakini visible y-axis ni vehicle acceleration.
• Figure 23: Caption inasema vehicle acceleration, lakini visible y-axis ni wheel tractive force.
• Figure 24: Caption inasema rotational speed, lakini visible y-axis ni distance.
• Figure 25: Caption inasema total distance, lakini visible y-axis ni rotational speed.

Validation boundary: Watafiti wanadai kwamba model inawakilisha physical behavior realistically na inaendana na previous experimental/theoretical studies. Hata hivyo, article hii haitoi systematic error analysis au experiment–simulation comparison ya model outputs dhidi ya new physical Pneumobile experimental dataset chini ya operating conditions zilezile. Kwa hiyo, haipaswi kuhitimishwa kwamba simulation ni “validated real vehicle performance”.

Energy-efficiency boundary: Study inatoa model ya optimizing compressed-air consumption na system parameters; lakini hairipoti single experimentally measured total energy-efficiency percentage kwa entire drive chain.