Utafiti huu umechunguza athari za muundo wa paneli kwenye mwanga, maji ya udongo, halijoto, utendaji wa mimea, evapotranspiration na unyakuzi wa kaboni katika mifumo ya agrivoltaic, ambako uzalishaji wa nishati ya jua na matumizi ya kilimo ya ardhi huunganishwa katika eneo moja. Katika eneo la utafiti lenye uwezo wa 2,25 MWAC lililojengwa Wisconsin, eneo la udhibiti la anga wazi lililinganishwa na safu ya photovoltaic yenye mwinamo wa kudumu na mfumo wa ufuatiliaji wa jua wa mhimili mmoja. Watafiti walitumia kwa pamoja sensa za radiation, vipimo vya unyevu na halijoto katika kina nne tofauti za udongo, minara ya eddy covariance, kamera ya phenology, pamoja na vipimo vya eneo la majani na stomatal conductance.

Matokeo yalionyesha kwamba paneli za jua hazifanyi ardhi yote kuwa baridi au yenye unyevu kwa namna moja. Chini ya paneli zenye mwinamo wa kudumu ziliundwa sehemu za kivuli cha kudumu; baadhi ya udongo chini ya paneli ulibaki mkavu zaidi licha ya kuwa baridi zaidi kwa sababu mvua haikufika moja kwa moja kwenye udongo. Katika drip lines zilizo kwenye kingo za paneli, maji yalijikusanya katika kina fulani. Mfumo wa ufuatiliaji wa mhimili mmoja ulihamisha kivuli siku nzima, kuongeza mwanga unaofika chini ya paneli na kuhifadhi hasa katika tabaka za kina za udongo viwango vya juu na vilivyo sawia zaidi vya unyevu.

Katika kipindi cha 1 Haziran–1 Ekim 2025, kwenye mnara wa vipimo ndani ya safu yenye mwinamo wa kudumu, cumulative net CO₂ uptake ilikuwa %43 chini, evapotranspiration %33 chini, huku cumulative sensible heat flux ikiwa %74 juu kuliko katika udhibiti wa eneo wazi. Ulinganisho huu haujumuishi safu ya ufuatiliaji wa mhimili mmoja; unahusu safu yenye mwinamo wa kudumu na eneo la udhibiti. Matokeo pia yalionyesha kwamba tofauti ya carbon uptake iliongezeka baada ya mowing na targeted herbicide application za mwanzoni mwa Agosti. Hata hivyo, utafiti unahusu mwaka wa kwanza tu wa kuanzishwa, eneo moja na maeneo ya vipimo yenye sifa tofauti; crop yield ya moja kwa moja, kiasi cha mavuno au mafanikio ya muda mrefu ya agrivoltaic hayakupimwa.

Swali kuu la utafiti ni lipi?

Lengo kuu la mifumo ya agrivoltaic ni kuendeleza uzalishaji wa umeme wa jua na matumizi ya kilimo au kiikolojia ya ardhi katika eneo moja. Lakini paneli si miundo tulivu inayozalisha umeme pekee. Zinabadilisha namna sunlight inavyofika kwenye udongo, mahali rainwater inapodondoka, surface temperature, mwendo wa hewa na kiasi cha maji kinachoweza kutumiwa na mimea.

Kwa hiyo, badala ya swali la mwelekeo mmoja kama “Je, eneo lenye paneli za jua huwa baridi na lenye unyevu zaidi?”, watafiti walijikita katika maswali manne ya kina zaidi:

1. Paneli za fixed-tilt na sun-tracking hubadilishaje usambazaji wa direct na diffuse light katika siku?
2. Shading ya paneli na redistribution ya rainfall huathirije unyevu na halijoto katika kina tofauti za udongo?
3. Vegetation cover, stomatal conductance na leaf area hubadilikaje katika microhabitats za panel underside, inter-row na drip line?
4. Tofauti hizi za small-scale zinaakisiwa vipi katika land-scale carbon uptake na evapotranspiration?

Kipengele kinachotofautisha utafiti ni kwamba haukulinganisha tu panel underside na open field; ulifuatilia panel underside, panel edge, drip line na inter-row corridors kama microhabitats tofauti. Hivyo ilionyeshwa kwamba agrivoltaic land haina hali moja ya mazingira, bali ni mosaic ya regimes tofauti za mwanga na maji.

Eneo la utafiti na mipangilio ya paneli

Kegonsa Research Campus agrivoltaic site imejengwa Wisconsin katika eneo la takribani 6,7 hectare. Kituo kina 5.424 bifacial photovoltaic modules za 530 W; kina uwezo wa jina wa 2,87 MWDC na 2,25 MWAC. Flat projection ya panel surfaces inafunika takribani %21 ya eneo la kituo.

Center axis ya fixed-tilt panels iko takribani 0,76 m juu ya ardhi. Low clearance hii ilifanya kufikia vegetation chini ya paneli na kufanya mowing kuwa vigumu. Katika single-axis system, paneli zilizunguka kulingana na position ya Sun na kubadilisha location ya shade upande wa mashariki na magharibi katika siku.

Ni microhabitats zipi zilifuatiliwa ndani ya panel rows?

Katika single-axis tracking array, panel underside, inter-row corridor, east drip line na west drip line zilifuatiliwa. Katika fixed-tilt array, panel underside, inter-row corridor, panel drip line na north edge zilifafanuliwa kama separate measurement points.

Locations hizi zilisaidia kutenganisha michakato miwili mikuu ya kimwili:

• Usambazaji wa mwanga: Paneli kuzuia direct sunlight na kubadilisha maeneo kuwa regions ambako diffuse light ndiyo inatawala.
• Usambazaji wa mvua: Rain kushikiliwa kwenye panel surface, maji machache kufika panel underside na maji kujikusanya katika panel edges.

Kwenye field-layout map ya utafiti, fixed, tracking na elevated panel areas; measurement towers, weather stations, soil tests na continuous-monitoring transects zimeonyeshwa pamoja. Experimental-design diagram pia inaonyesha kwamba light, plant, soil na atmospheric measurements ziliunganishwa kwenye same microhabitat structure.

Paneli za kudumu na zinazosogea zilibadilishaje mwanga?

Open-sky measurements za 14 Temmuz 2025 zilionyesha kwamba mifumo miwili ya paneli iliunda shading regimes tofauti. Katika fixed-tilt array, inter-row corridor na drip line zilipata mwanga karibu na open field kwa sehemu kubwa ya siku, wakati panel underside na north edge zilibaki kwa muda mrefu katika hali ya low na diffuse light.

Katika fixed-tilt array, tofauti kati ya brightest na darkest microhabitat ilifikia mara 14,9. Katika tracking array, ratio hii ilishuka hadi mara 2,6. Moving panels hazikuondoa direct light kabisa chini ya paneli; ziliruhusu direct light kufika panel underside katika intervals fulani asubuhi na alasiri.

Katika open field, total PPFD ya mchana ilifikia 1.711 µmol m^-2 s^-1, na direct light 1.540 µmol m^-2 s^-1. Direct light ilifanya takribani %90 ya peak total irradiance. Thamani za takribani 100–200 µmol m^-2 s^-1 chini ya paneli ziliwakilisha regime ambako direct light imezuiwa kwa kiasi kikubwa na diffuse light ndiyo inatawala.

Ni uhusiano gani ulipatikana kati ya light na ecosystem carbon uptake?

Kuanzia mapema Juni hadi mapema Oktoba, daily total na diffuse radiation zilipungua kadiri season ilivyoendelea. Multiple regression model iliyojumuisha daily direct light, diffuse light, date na tower location ilieleza %23,9 ya variability katika daily net ecosystem carbon exchange.

Katika analysis hii, positive NEE values zinaonyesha net carbon uptake. Ingawa coefficient ya diffuse light ilikuwa kubwa kuliko coefficient ya direct light, effect ya light haikupatikana kuwa statistically different kati ya towers. Watafiti pia walisisitiza kwamba light pekee haikuweza kueleza sehemu kubwa ya variability katika carbon balance. Plant community, phenology, temperature, atmospheric drying effect na site management pia ziliathiri daily carbon exchange.

Ilitathminiwa kwamba Canadian wildfire smoke huenda ilichangia radiation declines za mwishoni mwa Julai na mapema Agosti. Hata hivyo, kwa kuwa cloudiness, plant development na management operations pia zilibadilika katika kipindi hicho, uhusiano huu haukutenganishwa kwa uhakika.

Kwa nini soil baridi zaidi chini ya paneli ilibaki kavu zaidi?

Moja ya matokeo muhimu zaidi ya utafiti ni kwamba lower soil temperature haimaanishi kila wakati higher soil moisture. Chini ya fixed-tilt panels, shade ilipunguza evaporative demand; lakini panel surface pia iliintercept rain na kuzuia direct water input kufika panel underside. Rainfall loss ilipokuwa kubwa kuliko evaporation saving inayotokana na shade, soil baridi lakini kavu ilitokea.

Mean volumetric water content katika kipindi cha Mayıs–Kasım 2025 ilipimwa kama ifuatavyo:

Katika 46–60 cm layer ya fixed-tilt array, karibu %45 less water ilihifadhiwa kuliko control area. Tracking array ilihifadhi mean water content iliyo juu ya control katika same depth. Wakati wa growing season, VWC ya 0–15 cm layer ilikuwa 0,348 katika control, 0,340 katika tracking array na 0,280 m³ m^-3 katika fixed array. Katika deep layer, fixed array ilikuwa 0,207 na tracking array 0,417 m³ m^-3.

Maji yalienda wapi katika fixed-tilt array?

Panel-underside location katika fixed array ilikuwa moja ya maeneo makavu zaidi, ikiwa na mean 0,190 m³ m^-3 katika near-surface layer. Katika drip line, rain ilijikusanya kutoka panel edge kwenda kwenye soil; wakati wa growing season, VWC ya 31–45 cm layer ilifikia 0,437 m³ m^-3.

Katika inter-row corridor, mean growing-season moisture katika 46–60 cm layer ilikuwa 0,113 m³ m^-3, ikiwa lowest deep-soil value kwenye site. Baada ya rainfall, baadhi ya deep sensors zilionyesha rapid rise na rapid decline, hali inayolingana na movement ya water kwenda depth kupitia macropores na subsequent drainage.

Katika drip line, effect ya rainfall ilifika haraka katika depths zote, huku decline katika deepest layer ikiwa slower. Watafiti walieleza hili kwa rapid downward transport ya water kupitia macropores na kisha slowing katika lower layer ambayo inaweza kuwa na permeability ndogo.

Kwa nini tracking system iliunda soil-water distribution iliyo homogeneous zaidi?

Katika tracking array, east na west panel edges pamoja na inter-row locations zilionyesha similar high moisture values katika deep soil:

• East drip line: 0,454 m³ m^-3
• West drip line: 0,436 m³ m^-3
• Inter-row: 0,426 m³ m^-3
• Panel underside: 0,321 m³ m^-3

Kuzunguka kwa tracking panels katika siku kulibadilisha shade pamoja na location ya water runoff kutoka panel edge. Narrower panel structure na moving orientation zilipunguza continuous rainfall exclusion iliyoonekana chini ya fixed panels. Kwa hiyo tracking array ilionyesha spatial variability ndogo na water storage kubwa zaidi hasa katika 31–60 cm layer.

Finding hii haithibitishi kwamba moving panel system ni bora kwa agricultural katika conditions zote. Katika utafiti, tracking array haikuwa na land-scale carbon na evapotranspiration tower. Matokeo kuhusu tracking system yanategemea hasa light, soil-moisture na temperature sensors.

Soil temperature ilibadilika kwa kiasi gani?

Soil temperature ilionyesha seasonal pattern iliyo regular zaidi kuliko moisture. Katika kipindi cha Mayıs–Kasım, 0–15 cm layer ilikuwa mean 17,7 °C katika control, 16,8 °C katika fixed array na 16,6 °C katika tracking array. Katika 46–60 cm layer, control pia ilikuwa 17,7 °C, huku panel areas zikiwa 16,1–16,3 °C.

Fixed-array panel underside ilikuwa coolest microhabitat katika depths zote. Location hii ilishuka hadi 15,2 °C katika 46–60 cm layer. Wakati wa growing season, temperature ya panel underside katika fixed array ilikuwa 2,6 °C chini ya control katika surface layer na 2,9 °C chini katika deep layer.

Hata hivyo, same location haikuwa eneo lenye faida zaidi kwa moisture. Matokeo haya yanaonyesha kwamba katika agrivoltaic design haitoshi kuangalia amount of shade pekee; pia lazima kutathmini rainfall inaelekezwa kwenye location gani kutoka panel surface.

Carbon, water na energy fluxes zilibadilikaje?

Land-atmosphere exchange ilipimwa kwa two eddy-covariance towers ndani ya fixed-tilt array na katika open control area. Towers hizi zilirekodi three-dimensional wind, CO₂ na water-vapor density kwa 10 measurements per second. Data zilibadilishwa kuwa half-hourly fluxes na low-quality measurements zikaondolewa.

Cumulative results za kipindi cha 1 Haziran–1 Ekim 2025 ni:

Largest differences zilitokea karibu na midday. Control area ilionyesha higher carbon uptake na evapotranspiration, huku fixed-array area ikiwa na lower latent heat na higher sensible heat flux.

Matokeo haya hayamaanishi kwamba panel area lazima izalishe warmer air. Daily mean air temperature ilibaki very similar kati ya two sites. Daily temperature RMSD kati ya array measurement kwenye ten-meter height na control ilikuwa 0,17 °C. Hata hivyo, relative humidity katika array area kwa kawaida ilikuwa lower; control-area humidity ilikuwa mean 1,8–3,8 percentage points higher kuliko array kulingana na measurement height.

Electricity production iliingizwaje kwenye energy balance?

Kwa kuwa photovoltaic panels hubadilisha sehemu ya incoming solar energy kuwa electricity, kujumlisha heat fluxes pekee kunaweza kuacha energy balance ikiwa incomplete. Watafiti walikadiria fixed-array electricity generation si kwa direct meter data, bali kwa PVWatts relation inayotegemea measured shortwave radiation na air temperature:

\[ P_{dc}=\left(\frac{SW_{in}}{G_{ref}}\right)P_{dc0}\left[1+\gamma\left(T_{cell}-T_{ref}\right)\right](1-L) \]

\[ T_{cell}=T_{amb}+\left(\frac{NOCT-20}{800}\right)SW_{in} \]

Hapa \(P_{dc}\) ni estimated DC power; \(SW_{in}\) measured incoming shortwave radiation; \(G_{ref}=1000\) W m^-2 reference irradiance; \(P_{dc0}\) system nominal DC capacity; \(\gamma=-0,0037\) °C^-1 module temperature coefficient; \(T_{cell}\) cell temperature; \(T_{ref}=25\) °C reference temperature; \(L=0,1408\) system losses; na \(NOCT=45\) °C nominal operating cell temperature.

Kwa method hii, mean electrical-energy flux density katika growing season ilikokotolewa kuwa 7,1 W m^-2. PVWatts value inayotegemea long-term climate data ilikuwa 7,7 W m^-2.

Bila kuhesabu electricity generation, mean energy-balance gap katika fixed-array area ilikuwa 36,1 W m^-2, yaani %26,7 ya net radiation. Estimated electricity generation ilipoongezwa, gap ilishuka hadi 29,1 W m^-2 na %21,5. Control-area gap ilikuwa 9,3 W m^-2, au %7,8 ya net radiation. Higher non-closure ratio katika array area inaonyesha kwamba heterogeneous surface na measurement uncertainty lazima zizingatiwe katika interpretation.

Plant community na plant physiology zilionyesha nini?

Kwenye site, total taxa 19 zilitambuliwa: 13 broadleaf herbaceous plants na 6 grass species. Plant community ilijumuisha zaidi broadleaf species zenye C3 photosynthetic pathway. Tarla köygöçüreni, Kanada şifaotu na kışlık çavdar zilionekana katika %55 ya observations na kuwa species zilizorekodiwa mara nyingi zaidi. Kırmızı yonca ilirekodiwa kwa %40 na sirken kwa %35.

Katika tracking array, proportion ya C3 na broadleaf species ilikuwa higher, huku katika fixed array contribution ya grass na C4 species ikiwa kidogo higher. Hata hivyo, haya ni first-year results ya newly established vegetation. Community bado haiwakilishi stable agrivoltaic vegetation.

Stomatal conductance, hasa katika fixed array, ilionekana kufuata light distribution zaidi kuliko soil moisture. Katika leaves under permanent shade, conductance ilibaki lower. Leaf area index kwa ujumla pia ilikuwa lower under panels kuliko inter-row; lakini kwa kuwa sampling dates zilikuwa limited, spatial pattern ya variable hii haikuwa wazi kama soil moisture na stomatal conductance.

Kwa nini mowing na herbicide application ziliathiri matokeo?

Site ilipandwa katika Ekim 2024 kwa mchanganyiko wa native grasses, herbaceous species na winter rye; ikapandwa tena katika Mayıs na Eylül 2025. Mowing ilifanywa mapema Julai na mapema Agosti. Kwa kuwa mowing equipment ilikuwa vigumu kufika chini ya fixed panels, thistle species ziliongezeka na targeted glyphosate application ikafanywa kuanzia early hadi mid-August.

Strongest divergence katika cumulative carbon uptake ilitokea baada ya management period hii. Carbon uptake katika fixed-array area ilibaki largely flat, huku control area ikiendelea kukusanya carbon hadi September.

Timing hii inaashiria kwamba management interventions zinaweza kuwa na effects katika first-year carbon balance zenye magnitude inayolingana na microclimate. Hata hivyo, kwa kuwa mowing na herbicide hazikutumika kama separate controlled experiment, haikuwezekana kutenganisha kwa uhakika ni kiasi gani cha carbon difference kilitokana na shading na kiasi gani na plant management.

Utafiti unaonyesha nini?

• Agrivoltaic areas hazina microclimate moja; panel underside, inter-row na drip line huunda conditions tofauti za light-water.
• Fixed-tilt panels huunda permanent na strong light differences.
• Sun-tracking panels zinaweza kusambaza shade kwa muda, kuongeza daily light under panels na kupunguza extreme microhabitat differences.
• Cooler panel underside inaweza isitoe higher soil moisture ikiwa rainfall input imezuiwa.
• Water inayojikusanya katika panel edges inaweza kulowesha specific soil depths; lakini hii haimaanishi whole profile itakuwa wetter.
• Katika fixed-array area, lower evapotranspiration, lower net carbon uptake na higher sensible heat flux zilionekana pamoja.
• Mowing, weed control na equipment access ni sehemu zisizotenganishwa za ecological performance ya agrivoltaic system.

Utafiti hauonyeshi nini?

• Study haikupima direct food-crop yield au harvest amount.
• Lower net CO₂ uptake haimaanishi yield ya specific crop ilipungua exactly %43.
• Land-scale carbon uptake au evapotranspiration ya tracking array haikupatikana kuwa better than fixed array; hakuna comparable flux tower katika tracking area.
• Electricity generation haikulinganishwa moja kwa moja kati ya panel types.
• One-year results hazithibitishi long-term effects kwenye soil water, plant community, groundwater au agricultural production.
• Observed differences zote haziwezi kuhusishwa na photovoltaic panels pekee; control na array areas zinatofautiana katika vegetation, measurement height, footprint na energy-balance closure.
• Wisconsin results haziwezi kuhamishwa moja kwa moja kwa all climates, crops au panel designs nchini Türkiye.

Kwa nini ni muhimu kwa Türkiye?

Nguvu kuu ya utafiti kwa Türkiye ni kwamba badala ya one-direction assumptions kama “panels save water” au “shade reduces yield”, unatoa measurable field-evaluation framework. Katika agrivoltaic projects za Türkiye, kutumia mean soil temperature pekee au single moisture sensor kunaweza kuficha important differences ndani ya panel rows.

Design ya utafiti inaweza kubadilishwa kwa trial sites nchini Türkiye kama ifuatavyo:

• Fixed na moving panel systems zinaweza kulinganishwa chini ya same soil na plant conditions.
• Separate moisture, temperature na light sensors zinaweza kuwekwa under panels, inter-row na drip line.
• Soil water inaweza kufuatiliwa si surface pekee bali hadi at least 60 cm depth.
• Rainfall, evapotranspiration, carbon uptake, crop au biomass yield na electricity production zinaweza kutathminiwa pamoja.
• Management events kama mowing, grazing, weed control na machine access zinaweza kuunganishwa na measurement records.

Njia hii inaweza kuruhusu agrivoltaic design nchini Türkiye kutathminiwa si kwa electricity generation pekee, bali pia kwa plant-available light, rainfall distribution into soil, irrigation requirement, agricultural mechanization na long-term soil water. Hata hivyo, separate field validation inahitajika kwa local crop, soil, climate na panel geometry.

Mbinu na Matokeo ya Utafiti

Mpangilio wa vipimo na ukusanyaji wa data

Flux-data processing

• Low-quality flux measurements zenye EddyPro quality flag 2 ziliondolewa.
• At most five consecutive missing half-hour periods zilijazwa kwa linear interpolation.
• Longer data gaps ziliachwa bila kujazwa.
• Electricity production ilikadiriwa kwa PVWatts equation kwa kutumia measured shortwave radiation na air temperature ya fixed array.
• Positive values katika cumulative NEE graphs zinaonyesha net ecosystem CO₂ uptake.

Matokeo makuu ya kiasi

Nguvu za utafiti

• Research ilifanywa katika real na operational photovoltaic site.
• Fixed na moving panel geometries zilichunguzwa katika similar meteorological conditions ndani ya same campus.
• Light, soil, plant na atmosphere measurements ziliunganishwa katika common microhabitat framework.
• Soil moisture ilifuatiliwa katika four depths na high temporal resolution.
• Land-scale carbon na water fluxes zilitathminiwa pamoja na leaf na microhabitat measurements.
• Management events kama mowing na herbicide ziliwekwa alama katika time series.
• Raw au lightly processed data, quality-controlled products, metadata na data dictionaries zilitolewa katika open-access archive.

Mapungufu

• Study inahusu first establishment na growing season pekee.
• One site, one fixed array, one tracking array na one control area zilitumika; hakuna independent panel-array replicates.
• Vegetation, tower height na atmospheric footprint karibu na control na fixed-array flux towers si sawa.
• Tracking array haina land-scale carbon, water na energy flux tower.
• Elevated fixed-panel array haikuingizwa kwenye active measurement comparison.
• Energy-balance closure katika fixed-array area ni dhaifu kuliko katika control area.
• Electricity production ilikadiriwa kwa PVWatts model badala ya direct site meter.
• Plant community ni newly established na influence ya weeds pamoja na temporary cover species ni kubwa.
• Mowing na herbicide applications zilitokea katika same period na panel pamoja na microclimate effects.
• Leaf area ilipimwa katika limited dates na iliathiriwa na tracker-malfunction periods.
• Direct agricultural crop yield, harvest quality au economic result hazikupimwa.
• Observational field design haitoi definitive causality proof kwa differences zote.

Dokezo la Chanzo na Mbinu

• Jina kamili la asili la utafiti: Field-Scale Impacts on Water, Carbon, and Productivity in an Agrivoltaic Array: Initial Results and Data
• Waandishi na mpangilio: Kyungdoe Han; Hunter Mackin; Emily Mather; Steven Lawton; Jonathan Thom; Ankur R. Desai; Christopher J. Kucharik; Steven P. Loheide II
• Equal first authorship: Equal contribution au equal first authorship information haijatajwa.
• Corresponding author: Kyungdoe Han
• Corresponding author email: khan99@wisc.edu
• Institution 1: Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Wisconsin–Madison
• Institution 2: Department of Plant and Agroecosystem Sciences, University of Wisconsin–Madison
• Institution 3: Nelson Institute for Environmental Studies, University of Wisconsin–Madison
• Institution 4: Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences, University of Wisconsin–Madison
• DOI: 10.2139/ssrn.6945141
• Target journal: Agricultural and Forest Meteorology
• Journal submission number: AGRFORMET-D-26-01785
• Target journal publisher: Elsevier
• Original preprint platform: SSRN
• Publication year: 2026
• Source type: Agrivoltaic research preprint inayotegemea continuous field observations na repeated measurements
• Peer-review status: Study hii ni preprint na haijapitia peer review.
• Official preprint link:SSRN study page
• DOI link:10.2139/ssrn.6945141
• Open data archive:Kegonsa Research Campus Agrivoltaics Observatory data resource

Field data za study zimetolewa katika HydroShare archive chini ya headings za eddy covariance, radiation, soil moisture na temperature, pamoja na field campaigns. Archive ina raw au lightly processed files, quality-controlled analysis data, machine-readable metadata na data dictionaries. Pia imeelezwa kwamba AmeriFlux repositories zilitumika kwa flux-tower data.

Research iliungwa mkono na Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources Project #244, Wisconsin Groundwater Research and Monitoring Program, University of Wisconsin–Madison research support na U.S. Department of Energy AmeriFlux Management Project Award #7544821. Authors walitangaza kwamba hakuna known financial conflict of interest au personal-interest relationship.

Maelezo haya ya Kiswahili yanategemea tu text, tables, equations, field maps na graphs za examined study. External sources zilitumika tu kuthibitisha authors, DOI, publication platform, target journal na publication status. Hakuna new crop yield, electricity-production advantage, economic result au field result from Türkiye ambayo article haikutoa iliyoongezwa.

Main results zinawakilisha first-year observations. %43 lower net CO₂ uptake na %33 lower evapotranspiration zilizoripotiwa na study kwa fixed array zinahusu specific control-array tower comparison. Ratios hizi hazipaswi kutafsiriwa kama general effect sizes kwa all agrivoltaic systems, all crops au tracking systems.